{"collectionById":{"d4a5b68c-8afd-4bbe-a7ac-e9a8422fedde":{"id":"d4a5b68c-8afd-4bbe-a7ac-e9a8422fedde","name":"Blog Articles","fieldSchemas":[{"id":"112a5d36-c2fe-4270-89db-11332b6d141c","name":"Topic","type":"plain_text"},{"id":"0b77f83b-c31a-4889-b9b3-9a6d2e41fc86","name":"Author Bio","type":"rich_text"},{"id":"0a981f8a-7dbb-440d-a940-25d9060c9b11","name":"Author Job Title","type":"plain_text"},{"id":"402ba26f-8f6d-4f5f-bf20-62e6549f4ad4","name":"Slug","type":"slug","role":"slug"},{"id":"df1c88d1-4bd8-4ecd-9059-463b9589de92","name":"Author Name","type":"plain_text"},{"id":"1f58afa6-2748-4188-b4a4-f1e54e37eca9","name":"Hero Image","type":"image"},{"id":"3084d9ba-ab55-4e5a-931b-b9db3d09105f","name":"Article Content","type":"rich_text"},{"id":"b7712ee6-f9fd-4781-8c5c-e7e10ce8f81e","name":"Publish Date","type":"date"},{"id":"f2ba59b9-49cc-4ec6-9416-bda99d4c8383","name":"Title","type":"plain_text","role":"primary"},{"id":"676063ae-971f-41f4-a8ff-51f75c78431d","name":"Reading Time","type":"plain_text"},{"id":"7eeb4aed-e691-4ca9-b11a-c4bff166e4f6","name":"Summary","type":"plain_text"}],"itemById":{"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253":{"id":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","index":"'\\","collectionId":"d4a5b68c-8afd-4bbe-a7ac-e9a8422fedde","fields":[{"id":"29b45af9-2842-46c2-ae90-588c3b949ba8","value":"2026-05-27","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"b7712ee6-f9fd-4781-8c5c-e7e10ce8f81e"},{"id":"74a61f68-21b0-48d4-a95c-3ce03308b99c","value":"Design History in Three Cultural Eras, Part 2: Modernism and the Birth of Postmodern Thought","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"f2ba59b9-49cc-4ec6-9416-bda99d4c8383"},{"id":"53feb25e-f563-4745-b11f-78ac8411a4b3","value":"8 min read","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"676063ae-971f-41f4-a8ff-51f75c78431d"},{"id":"3c741bda-1a87-4159-bba5-42fc6efbbdd1","value":"{\"root\":{\"children\":[{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"If you've ever been told that \\\"form follows function,\\\" that ornament is unnecessary, or that good design is simple and neutral, you've been handed a modernist worldview. It's so baked into design education that it can feel like common sense. It isn't. It's a set of beliefs with a birth date, a peak and a very public crisis.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"This is the second part of a three-part series. \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Part 1: Before Modernism\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" covered the long premodern stretch, when truth came from God and tradition. Here we follow the modern era, when people decided humans could find the truth themselves.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"When does modernism start?\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Historians don't agree. Some place the start in the 1860s, with Impressionism and industrial cities. Others wait until around 1905, when artists began breaking with representation altogether. A reasonable way to handle it is to treat 1860 to 1905 as a transition and the modern era proper as running from about 1905 to the 1960s.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"It's also called the age of the \\\"isms,\\\" for obvious reasons: Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Suprematism, and so on.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"What modernists believed\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Five ideas run underneath almost everything in this period:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Reason.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" Science and rational thinking can solve our problems.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":1},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Universal truth.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" Art and design can express values that are objective and valid everywhere.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":2},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Functionalism.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" Form should follow function. Ornament is unnecessary, even dishonest.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":3},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The avant-garde.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" Culture must break with the past and experiment with new ideas.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":4},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Progress.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" History moves in a line toward something better, so constant change is a moral good.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":5}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"list\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"listType\":\"bullet\",\"start\":1,\"tag\":\"ul\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Keep those five in mind. The rest of this article is those beliefs being tested.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The isms, in order\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Fauvism (roughly 1905 to 1910, France)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The name started as an insult. At a 1905 Paris exhibition, the critic Louis Vauxcelles called these painters \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"fauves\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\", \\\"wild beasts,\\\" because of their loud, seemingly irrational colors. For Henri Matisse and his circle, color no longer described reality. It \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"was\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" the emotion. A tree could be blue because that's how it felt, not because that's how it looked. Flat, unmixed color straight from the tube.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Expressionism (roughly 1905 to 1925, Germany)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"If Fauvism was almost joyful, Expressionism was anxious. It grew in Germany amid social tension and, later, war. Groups like Die Brücke (founded in 1905) and Der Blaue Reiter (1911) distorted the outside world to reveal the inner one: exaggerated color, aggressive lines, deliberately deformed figures. Edvard Munch's \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The Scream\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (1893) came earlier, but it's often treated as the movement's ancestor.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Cubism (roughly 1907 to the 1920s, France)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Probably the most intellectual movement of early modernism. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque showed objects from several viewpoints at once, breaking reality into geometric facets. They built on Paul Cézanne's late work and on African masks they saw in Paris. For a few years around 1910 their paintings look so alike that even specialists can struggle to tell them apart.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"For design, Cubism is a big deal. Fragmented planes and overlapping viewpoints opened the door to the asymmetric compositions and collage-like layouts of the 1920s.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Futurism (1909 to 1944, Italy)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"If Cubism took space apart, Futurism took time apart, painting not the object but its trajectory. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's 1909 manifesto worshipped speed, machines and violence, and proposed burning the museums. The uncomfortable part: Marinetti supported Mussolini, and Futurism became tied to Italian fascism.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Suprematism (roughly 1915 to 1925, Russia)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Kazimir Malevich painted a black square on a white background, showed it in 1915, and called his approach Suprematism, the supremacy of pure feeling in art. That wasn't a joke. It was a philosophical statement: art freed from any reference to the visible world, using only basic shapes like the square, circle and cross. Its timing, right before the 1917 Russian Revolution, made it part of a wider search for a new art for a new society.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"De Stijl (1917 to 1931, Netherlands)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The Dutch version of geometric abstraction was tidier and more systematic. Only horizontal and vertical lines, only primary colors plus black, white and grey, all in search of universal harmony. Piet Mondrian took it into painting; Theo van Doesburg took it into architecture and graphic design. It's a direct ancestor of modern editorial grids, and yes, of a lot of interface layout.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Bauhaus (1919 to 1933, Germany)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Not a movement but a school, founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919. It broke down the wall between fine and applied arts: painting, typography, weaving, metalwork, ceramics and architecture were taught under one roof by people like Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, László Moholy-Nagy and Josef Albers. In 1923 Gropius summed up its new direction as \\\"art and technology, a new unity.\\\"\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"One correction worth making: \\\"form follows function\\\" didn't come from the Bauhaus. The American architect Louis Sullivan wrote it in 1896. The Bauhaus just became its most famous advocate.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Dada (1916 to 1924, international)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"If Futurism wanted to destroy museums, Dada wanted to destroy the idea of art itself. Born in Zurich during the First World War as a reaction to its senselessness and to the middle-class values that led to it, Dada treated provocation, absurdity and nihilism as creative methods. Anything could be art if the artist declared it so. Marcel Duchamp, Tristan Tzara and Hannah Höch are the names to know. Its unexpected legacy: conceptual art, performance art, modern collage and, in many ways, postmodernism itself.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Surrealism (1924 to the 1940s, France and international)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Sigmund Freud's theories about dreams, desire and repression reshaped how artists thought about the mind. André Breton's \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Manifesto of Surrealism\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (1924) proposed the unconscious as the source of creation. Techniques like automatic drawing let the hand move without rational control, and the results were dreamlike, unsettling, erotic or violent images meant to wake the viewer up. Salvador Dalí, René Magritte and Max Ernst are the core names. Frida Kahlo is often grouped with them, though she rejected the label and said she painted her own reality, not dreams.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The Second World War breaks the promise\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The Second World War (1939 to 1945) did something the first one hadn't fully managed: it destroyed modernism's faith in progress and utopia. After industrialized genocide and the atomic bomb, it was very hard to keep believing that reason and technology automatically lead somewhere better. What had \\\"reason\\\" done for us?\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The art world's center also moved, from Paris to New York.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Abstract Expressionism (1940s to 1950s, New York)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The first American art movement with global impact. It kept Surrealism's spontaneity but dropped the dream imagery. Process mattered as much as the result, and art became the expression of the individual self. It had two main branches:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Action painting\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning): the act of painting \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"is\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" the work. Gesture, movement, energy.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":1},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Color field\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman): huge fields of color that produce an almost meditative experience.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":2}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"list\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"listType\":\"bullet\",\"start\":1,\"tag\":\"ul\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Minimalism (late 1950s to 1970s, United States)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Minimalism reacted to all that emotional intensity by removing it. If Pollock puts in everything, Minimalism asks what's left when you take out whatever isn't essential. Donald Judd said his works were neither painting nor sculpture but \\\"specific objects\\\" (the title of his 1965 essay). Frank Stella put it more bluntly: \\\"What you see is what you see.\\\"\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The critic Clement Greenberg had already argued that painting should deal only with its own properties, flatness and color, which gave this whole reduction an intellectual backbone.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The turn toward postmodern thought\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Modernism believed there was one right path, one better way of doing things, a reachable utopia. By the 1960s a new attitude answered: there is no single path, no universal truth, no grand story that explains everything.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Postmodernism isn't one style. It's an \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"attitude toward every previous style\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\". Its main moves:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Pluralism:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" no single visual truth.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":1},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Appropriation:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" taking images and styles from the past and giving them new meaning.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":2},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Pastiche:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" mixing styles with no hierarchy between them.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":3},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Irony:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" keeping a critical distance from what's represented.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":4},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Blurred boundaries:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" between \\\"high\\\" art and popular culture, between designer and audience.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":5}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"list\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"listType\":\"bullet\",\"start\":1,\"tag\":\"ul\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Pop Art (roughly 1955 to 1970, UK and US)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"A direct reaction to the seriousness of Abstract Expressionism. Advertising, comics, TV and logos weren't beneath art; they were legitimate material. The British critic Lawrence Alloway is usually credited with coining \\\"Pop Art\\\" in the mid-1950s. Andy Warhol's \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Campbell's Soup Cans\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (1962) and Roy Lichtenstein's comic-strip paintings are the famous results.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Conceptual Art (1960s to 1970s)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The direct heir of Dada and Duchamp's readymades. The idea \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"is\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" the work, not the object. Joseph Kosuth's \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"One and Three Chairs\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (1965) shows a real chair, a photo of that chair and a dictionary definition of \\\"chair\\\" side by side, and asks which one is the chair. Text, instructions and documentation could be the whole piece. The movement opened the door to performance, installation and digital art.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Neo-Expressionism (late 1970s to 1980s)\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h3\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"After Minimalism and Conceptual Art took everything to its coolest, most abstract extreme, painters came back to the figure with a vengeance: thick paint, intense color, emotionally loaded stories. Jean-Michel Basquiat, Georg Baselitz, Anselm Kiefer and Julian Schnabel rode a booming 1980s art market.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The theory behind the shift\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Two French thinkers gave the new attitude its vocabulary:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Jean-François Lyotard\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\", in \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The Postmodern Condition\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (1979), described postmodernism as incredulity toward \\\"metanarratives,\\\" the big stories about progress, science, religion or revolution that once claimed to explain everything.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":1},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Jean Baudrillard\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\", in \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Simulacra and Simulation\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (1981), argued that media, advertising and images create a \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"hyperreality\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\", a simulation that feels more real than the real thing. Simulacra are copies without an original. Much of the art, design and visual culture of the 1980s and 1990s runs on this idea.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"listitem\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"value\":2}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"list\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"listType\":\"bullet\",\"start\":1,\"tag\":\"ul\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The good taste debate\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Here's where it lands for designers, and the argument is still going.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Modernist good taste\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" means function, simplicity and neutrality. The architect Adolf Loos wrote an essay called \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Ornament and Crime\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" (usually dated 1908, first delivered as a lecture in 1910), and Mies van der Rohe is associated with \\\"less is more.\\\"\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"The postmodern response\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" asks who gets to define good taste in the first place. Is ornament really a crime? Can something \\\"vulgar\\\" or provocative have value? The architect Robert Venturi answered Mies directly in 1966: \\\"Less is a bore.\\\"\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Try this\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"heading\",\"version\":1,\"tag\":\"h2\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Open the last thing you designed. Find one decision you made because it's \\\"cleaner\\\" or \\\"more neutral.\\\" Now ask: neutral for whom? Clean according to which tradition? You don't have to change it. Just notice that you picked a side in a hundred-year-old argument.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"},{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":1,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Next:\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" \",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":2,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"Design History in Three Cultural Eras, Part 3: Postmodern Graphic Design and the Digital Age\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1},{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\" takes this attitude into posters, record covers, magazines and screens, from 1960s psychedelia to vaporwave.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1,\"textStyle\":\"\"}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"root\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":1}}","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"3084d9ba-ab55-4e5a-931b-b9db3d09105f"},{"id":"f0337b4e-bcb0-421a-98a8-b49f012aee44","value":"{\"root\":{\"children\":[{\"children\":[{\"detail\":0,\"format\":0,\"mode\":\"normal\",\"style\":\"\",\"text\":\"I design interfaces, design systems and motion for enterprise products, and I teach graphic design at Universidad de Monterrey.\",\"type\":\"text\",\"version\":1}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"paragraph\",\"version\":1,\"textFormat\":0,\"textStyle\":\"\"}],\"direction\":null,\"format\":\"\",\"indent\":0,\"type\":\"root\",\"version\":1}}","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"0b77f83b-c31a-4889-b9b3-9a6d2e41fc86"},{"id":"a59a2642-005e-4920-a5f4-b176cf24dfad","value":"Hugo Villarreal","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"df1c88d1-4bd8-4ecd-9059-463b9589de92"},{"id":"85e87009-cf0b-4734-a1c5-5b2c171d6dea","value":"Design history","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"112a5d36-c2fe-4270-89db-11332b6d141c"},{"id":"895d045d-6d8c-4089-9958-71a54ad740a6","value":"2026-05-27","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"b7712ee6-f9fd-4781-8c5c-e7e10ce8f81e"},{"id":"cc85ec25-0bc7-4098-b5bb-cf0ce2069fe0","value":"Hugo Villarreal","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"df1c88d1-4bd8-4ecd-9059-463b9589de92"},{"id":"a22b6e4b-a422-446c-8654-a76936c45028","value":"The age of the isms: how faith in reason and progress shaped modern art and design, and how it cracked into postmodern doubt.","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"7eeb4aed-e691-4ca9-b11a-c4bff166e4f6"},{"id":"515c7032-a762-4bcb-a051-82236b7150c4","value":"Design history","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"112a5d36-c2fe-4270-89db-11332b6d141c"},{"id":"244f64c5-ecd2-4556-8302-8487d4a2017d","value":"8 min read","itemId":"778b781d-23e5-45f4-91dd-d0782796c253","fieldSchemaId":"676063ae-971f-41f4-a8ff-51f75c78431d"},{"id":"1a0aa525-59d9-4958-a101-4d8233d0c979","value":"Senior Experience Designer · Design 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